This article will address the claim that Thomas Aquinas held to an Augustinian doctrine of predestination essentially compatible with that of the Reformed Churches, showing in what ways Thomas’s doctrine is compatible with the doctrine of the Reformed Churches and important ways in which it differs. In doing this we will follow the traditional TULIP outline and demonstrate Thomas’s doctrine on each of these points.
Total Depravity
Thomas did indeed hold to the doctrine of total depravity, which we define as ‘the inability of fallen and unregenerate man to effect good works, including his own conversion’. It is important to note that a good work in this context is defined as a work done, not merely in outward conformity to the law of God, but also with inward conformity; that is, with an eye towards the glory of God. This definition of a good work, moreover, is not alien to Thomas, who taught that the morality of moral actions derives from their end, which is an object of the will (Summa Theologiae I-II. Q. 18). Thomas does indeed teach much of the substance of the doctrine of total depravity, and the following propositions summarize his views:
- Man cannot, without grace, keep the law either in its substance (externally) or rightly (with charity).
From the Summa, I-II Q. 109 Art. 104:
I answer that, There are two ways of fulfilling the commandments of the Law. The first regards the substance of the works, as when a man does works of justice, fortitude, and of other virtues. And in this way man in the state of perfect nature could fulfill all the commandments of the Law; otherwise he would have been unable not to sin in that state, since to sin is nothing else than to transgress the Divine commandments. But in the state of corrupted nature man cannot fulfill all the Divine commandments without healing grace. Second, the commandments of the law can be fulfilled, not merely as regards the substance of the act, but also as regards the mode of acting, i.e., their being done out of charity. And in this way, neither in the state of perfect nature, nor in the state of corrupt nature can man fulfill the commandments of the law without grace. Hence, Augustine (De Corrupt. et Grat. ii) having stated that without grace men can do no good whatever, adds: Not only do they know by its light what to do, but by its help they do lovingly what they know. Beyond this, in both states they need the help of God’s motion in order to fulfill the commandments, as stated above (AA2,3).
And he adds further on,
Man cannot, with his purely natural endowments, fulfill the precept of the love of God according as it is fulfilled by charity, as stated above (A3).
- While fallen man may do some natural good, man in all states needs the grace of God for supernatural good.
From the Summa, I-II Q. 109 Art. 2:
Man’s nature may be looked at in two ways: first, in its integrity, as it was in our first parent before sin; second, as it is corrupted in us after the sin of our first parent. Now in both states human nature needs the help of God as First Mover, to do or wish any good whatsoever, as stated above (A1). But in the state of integrity, as regards the sufficiency of the operative power, man by his natural endowments could wish and do the good proportionate to his nature, such as the good of acquired virtue; but not surpassing good, as the good of infused virtue. But in the state of corrupt nature, man falls short of what he could do by his nature, so that he is unable to fulfill it by his own natural powers. Yet because human nature is not altogether corrupted by sin, so as to be shorn of every natural good, even in the state of corrupted nature it can, by virtue of its natural endowments, work some particular good, as to build dwellings, plant vineyards, and the like; yet it cannot do all the good natural to it, so as to fall short in nothing; just as a sick man can of himself make some movements, yet he cannot be perfectly moved with the movements of one in health, unless by the help of medicine he be cured.
Now, regarding what is meant by supernatural good, it seems clear that Thomas has religious acts and affections in mind.
- Fallen, unregenerate man cannot without grace avoid all sin.
…man cannot abstain from all venial sin on account of the corruption of his lower appetite of sensuality. For man can, indeed, repress each of its movements (and hence they are sinful and voluntary), but not all, because while he is resisting one, another may arise, and also because the reason cannot always be alert to avoid these movements, as was said above (Q74, A3, ad 2).
Summa I-II Q. 109 Art. 8
- “Man by himself can no wise rise from sin without the help of grace.” (Summa I-II Q. 109 Art. 7)
- Man needs the gift of perseverance from God in order to persevere.
And in order to have this perseverance man does not, indeed, need another habitual grace, but he needs the Divine assistance guiding and guarding him against the attacks of the passions, as appears from the preceding article. And hence after anyone has been justified by grace, he still needs to beseech God for the aforesaid gift of perseverance, that he may be kept from evil till the end of his life.
Summa I-II Q. 109 Art. 10
From these quotes, it is clear that Thomas taught the substance of the doctrine of total depravity, although he may have differed from the Reformed consensus in some details.
Unconditional election
We understand unconditional election as the teaching that God elects, not on the basis of foreseen merits, but out of mere benevolence toward particular, unworthy sinners. Thomas taught this doctrine explicitly:
Let us then consider the whole of the human race, as we consider the whole universe. God wills to manifest His goodness in men; in respect to those whom He predestines, by means of His mercy, as sparing them; and in respect of others, whom he reprobates, by means of His justice, in punishing them. This is the reason why God elects some and rejects others. To this the Apostle refers, saying (Rom 9:22, 23): What if God, willing to show His wrath, and to make His power known, endured with much patience vessels of wrath, fitted for destruction; that He might show the riches of His glory on the vessels of mercy, which He hath prepared unto glory and (2 Tim 2:20): But in a great house there are not only vessels of gold and silver; but also of wood and of earth; and some, indeed, unto honor, but some unto dishonor.
Yet why He chooses some for glory, and reprobates others, has no reason, except the divine will. Whence Augustine says (Tract. xxvi. in Joan.): Why He draws one, and another He draws not, seek not to judge, if thou dost not wish to err.
Summa I Q. 23 Art. 5
Limited Atonement
Thomas taught the sufficiency-efficiency distinction, a form of limited atonement. From his comments on 1 Tim. 2:9:
But we see Jesus, who was made a little lower than the angels, for the suffering of death, crowned with glory and honor: that, through the grace of God he might taste death for all.
But for all can be understood in two ways: first, as applying to all the predestined, since it is only in the predestined that it is efficacious. Second, as applying absolutely to all so far as sufficiency is concerned; for of itself it is sufficient for all: who is the savior of all, but especially of the faithful (1 Tim 4:10); he died for all in general, because the price was sufficient for all. And if all do not believe, he nevertheless fulfilled his part (Chrysostom).
Commentary on 1 Timothy, Ch. 2, Lecture 2
Irresistible Grace
For Thomas, the internal call of God, at least as regards conversion, is irresistible:
Furthermore, this call is efficacious in the predestined, because they assent to the call: everyone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to me (John 6:45).
Lecture on Romans 8:28-32
Perseverance of the Saints
Thomas did teach the perseverance of the elect, but not perseverance of the saints. What we mean by this is that he taught that all the elect will persevere, but that not only the elect, but many besides, are called to faith and given real conversion and grace, and eventually fall away. Their state in this life differs nothing from the elect. In keeping with this, one may not know in this life whether they are elect or reprobate.
From Summa I-II Q. 109 Art. 10:
And hence after anyone has been justified by grace, he still needs to beseech God for the aforesaid gift of perseverance, that he may be kept from evil till the end of his life. For to many grace is given to whom perseverance in grace is not given.
From Thomas’s Lectures on Matthew 20:16:
He says, many are called, but few chosen, because all those who believe in faith are called; but those are chosen who do good works, and these are few, as above, how narrow is the gate, and strait is the way that leads to life: and few there are who find it! (Matt 7:14).
From Thomas’s Lectures on Romans 8:28-32:
Hence, second, he mentions justification, when he says, and whom he called, them he also justified, by infusing grace: they are justified by his grace as a gift (Rom 3:24).
Although this justification is frustrated in certain persons, because they do not persevere to the end, in the predestined it is never frustrated.
Conclusion
While it may certainly be said that Thomas taught a double predestination, in that he believed that all who God elects will come to faith and persevere to glory, and that none who he does not elect will do so, his failure to establish the state of grace as unique to the elect convert means that Thomas’s doctrine of predestination can provide no comfort to the elect regarding their perseverance, because they are unable to discern from their faith or from the grace they have been given that they are actually elect. Rather, Thomas, in teaching that heaven is attained by the merits of works,[1] leads his followers to a carnal presumption in the worth of their own merits as suited to heaven, or to a fearful doubt of the same.
Reformed Theology Delatinized 